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Alcimistler
CİNLERLE İNSANLAR EVLENEBİLİRLER Mİ?
CİN'CE YADA CİNLERİN ÖZEL BİR DİLİ VAR MIDIR?
YENİ DÜNYA BÜYÜCÜLERİNDE YAMYAMLIK
Kontes Elizabeth Bathory (Kanlı Kontes)
Alcimistler
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Geber / Abu Musa Jabir ibn Hayyan (721-815)
Abu Bakr Mohammad Ibn Zakariya al-Razi (864-930)
Avicenna - Abu Ali al-Husain ibn Abdallah ibn Sina (985-1037)
Classical and Roman Empire
Albertus Magnus (1193-1280)
Roger Bacon (1220- 1292)
Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274)
Nicolas Flamel (1330-1418) - 5 Files
Basil Valentine (supposed 15th cent.) The 12 Keys - 2 Files
Georg Agricola (1494-1555)
Paracelsus (1493-1541]
Valentin Weigel (1533-1588) - 2 Files
Edward Kelley (1555-1595)
Jacob Bohmen (1575 - 1624)
Heinrich Khunrath (1560-1605)
Michal Sedziwoj (1566-1636)
Jan Baptista van Helmont (1577-1644)
Robert Boyle (1626-1691)
John Mayow (1641-1679)
Isaac Newton (1642 -1727) - 2 Files
Count Alessandro de Cagliostro (1743-1795)
Count of Saint Germain (18th Century)
Demosthenes - The Alchemist God
Alexandre Saint-Yves d'Alveydre The Archeometre (1842-1909)
Rönasans'ın Alman bilgini Theophrastus Philippus Aureolus Bombastus von Hohenheim ( 1493-1541) renkli bir kişiliğe sahipti. Genellikle PARACELSUS adıyla tanınmaktadır. Otuz yaşlarındaykenaldığı bu lakap “von Hohenheim”ın Latinceleştirilmiş şeklinden türetilmiş olabileceği gib “Celsus'tan üstün” ( Celsus, milattan sonra birinci yüzyılda yaşamış bir Romalı tıp eserleri derleyicisidir.) anlamına da gelebilmekteydi. Belki de, geleneksel kavramları yıkan “paradoksal” (doktrinlere aykırı) kitaplar yazmasıyla ilgiliydi. Paracelsus 1493 veya 1494'te İsviçre'de Einsiedeln'de tıpla ilgilenen bir ailede doğdu.
İlk eğitimini özellikle botanik, madencilik, metalürji ve genel bilim konusunda babasından aldı. Sonraki hocaları piskoposlar ve büyüyle ilgili faliyetlerinin önde gelen ismi olan Sponheim başrahibiydi. Yirmili yaşlarına geldiğinde, Paracelsus bölgedeki madenlerde veya daha muhtemel olarak bu madenlerin laboratuarlarında çalıştı. Bu, oldukça alışılmış bir eğitimdi. Ayrıca, İtalya'ya gittiği ve Ferrara Üniversitesi'nde bir süre tıp okuduğu da tahmin edilmektedir: çünkü çok geçmeden, önce Venedik'te sonra da başka yerlerde askeri cerrah olarak çalıştığını görmekteyiz.
Doktorluk gibi saygı gören bir mesleğin üyesi olmasına rağmen Paracelsus'un babası gayri meşru bir çocuk olarak doğmuştu. Annesi ise bir Benediktin manastırında hizmet etmekteydi. Bu durum, Paracelsus'u hayatı boyunca etkilemiş görünmektedir; çünkü otorite ile arasında her zaman bir sevgi-nefret ilişkisi vardı. Arkadaşlarını, hatta hamilerini bile kendinden uzaklaştıran öfkeli bir adamdı. Geleneksel bilimi ve tıbbı reddetti; tedavi yöntemlerini köylülerden öğrenmeye çalıştı; köylülerle beraber tavernalarda içki içerek zaman geçirdi; bu alışkanlığı ona şarap konusunda uzmanlık kazandırdı. Köylülerin hastalıklarını ücretsiz olarak tedavi etti ve zenginlerden fahiş ücretler alarak durumunu dengeledi.
Paracelsus'un meslek hayatı, başarı ve başarısızlığın tam bir karışımıydı.Salzburg'da başarılı şekilde doktorluk yaptı, önde gelen hümanist yayımcı Johannes Froben'in hayatını kurtararak büyük ün kazandı. Bu başarısı ve Erasmus'a yaptığı sağlam tıbbi tavsiyeler sayesinde, 1527'de Basel'de belediye doktorluğu ve tıp profesörlüğü görevlerini elde etti. Ancak akademik otoriteler memnun değildi. Çünkü, gerekli belgeleri sunmayı ve yemin etmeyi reddetmiş, Galenos'u karalayan bir yazı hazırlamış ve yeni bir program hazırlayacağını açıklamıştı. Tayini ancak Froben'in ve diğer güçlü reformcuların yardımı sayesinde gerçekleşti. Ancak ertesi yıl Froben öldü ve Paracelsus, Basel'i terk etmek zorunda bırakıldı. İbn Sina'nın Kanun'unun bir nüshasını herkesin önünde yakmış, Almanca ders vermekte ısrar etmiş, sınıflarına berber-cerrahları almış ve hatta, vizite ücretini ödemediği için bir üst düzey hükümet yetkilisini mahkemeye verecek kadar işi ileri götürmüştü. Bundan sonra Paracelsus, bir şehirden diğerine dolaştı. Kendine gösterilen misafirperverliği genellikle suistimal ettiğinden, bir yerde en fazla iki yıl kalabilmekteydi. Madencilerde görülen hastalıkları da, köylü elbisesi giyerek yaptığı bu geziler sırasında inceledi. 1541 yılında Salzburg'da öldü.
Çok sağlam bir bünyeye sahip olan Paracelsus, içki içmede köylülerle iddiaya girmekte ve kazandıktan sonra, gecenin geri kalan kısmında yazılarını çok tutarlı bir dille sekreterine dikte etmekteydi. Tabii ki, elindeki kılıcı sallayarak ve bağırarak etrafındakilere dehşete düşürmediği zamanlarda! Ertesi gün laboratuarında çalışmakta veya muayenehanesinde hasta bakmaktaydı. Bu çılgınca hayata rağmen, tıbba bazı yenilikler getirdi. Silikoz ve tüberkülozu madencilerde görülen meslek hastalıkları olarak tanımladı; frenginin doğuştan gelebileceğini buldu; guatr ile kretinizm (patolojik zeka geriliği) arasında bir bağlantı olduğunu anladı. Ancak en önemli katkısı yeni bir hastalık teorisi ortaya koymuş olmasırdır.
Paracelsus, hastalığın vücut sıvılarındaki dengesizlik veya düzensizlikten meydana geldiğine dair eski inancı çürüttü; dış etkilerin önemini vurguladı ve özellikle vücudun bir “zehir” tarafından istila edildiğini ileri sürdü. Bu onu yeni tedavi şekillerine götürdü ve tedavide, homeopati ilkelerini ve “benzerlikler” kavramını uyguladı.
Homeopati, Sağlıklı kişilerde belirli hastalıklara yol açan ilaçların, o hastalıkların belirtilerine karşı kullanılmasına dayanan tedavi yöntemidir.
Bunun sonuncu tedavi şekline göre, kullanılacak bitkisel ilacın seçimi, bitkinin rengi ve şekli ile hasta organ arasındaki benzerlik göz önüne alınarak yapılmaktaydı. Ayrıca ilaç hammadelerini, içerdikleri spesifik bileşenlere göre ayırmaya çalıştı ve minarelleri doğrudan ilaç olarak kullanmayı öğütledi. Bütün bunlar, kimyada yeni teknik ve fikirler geliştirmesine sebep oldu ki, bu teknikler ve fikirler kendisinden sonra iyatrokimyayı uygulayacak olanlara çok fayda sağlayacaktı.
Paracelsus
Paracelsus (born 11 November or 17 December 1493 in Einsiedeln, Switzerland - 24 September 1541) was an alchemist, physician, astrologer, and general occultist. Born Theophrastus Philippus Aureolus Bombastus von Hohenheim, he took the name Paracelsus later in life, meaning "beside or similar to Celsus", an early Roman physician.
Paracelsus was born at Einsiedeln, Switzerland, of a Swabian chemist father and a Swiss mother. He was brought up in Switzerland, and as a youth he worked in nearby mines as an analyst. He started studying medicine at the university of Basel at the age of 16. There is speculation he gained his doctorate degree from the University of Ferrara.
He later journeyed to Egypt, Arabia, the Holy Land, and Constantinople seeking alchemists from whom to learn. On his return to Europe, his knowledge of these treatments won him fame. He did not go along with the conventional treatment of wounds, which was to pour boiling oil onto them to cauterize them; or if they were on a limb, to let them become gangrenous and then to amputate the limb. Paracelsus believed the then-ridiculous idea that wounds would heal themselves if allowed to drain and prevented from becoming infected.
Paracelsus rejected Gnostic traditions, but kept much of the Hermetic, neoplatonic, and Pythagorean philosophies; however, Hermetical science had so much Aristotelian theory that his rejection of Gnosticism was practically meaningless.
In particular, Paracelsus rejected the magic theories of Agrippa and Flamel (N.B. This assertion regarding Flamel is problematic, since a.) no works by Flamel were in circulation prior to Paracelsus' death and b.) Flamel's theories are specifically alchemical and not magical); Paracelsus did not think of himself as a magician and scorned those who did, though he was a practicing astrologer, as were most, if not all of the university-trained physicians working at this time in Europe.
Astrology was a very important part of Paracelsus' medicine. In his Archidoxes of Magic Paracelsus devoted several sections to astrological talismans for curing disease, providing talismans for various maladies as well as talismans for each sign of the Zodiac. He also invented an alphabet called the Alphabet of the Magi, for engraving angelic names upon talismans.
Paracelsus pioneered the use of chemicals and minerals in medicine. He used the name "zink" for the element zinc in about 1526, based on the sharp pointed appearance of its crystals after smelting and the old German word "zinke" for pointed. He used experimentation in learning about the human body.
His hermetical views were that sickness and health in the body relied on the harmony of man, the microcosm, and Nature of the macrocosm. He took an approach different from those before him, using this analogy not in the manner of soul-purification but in the manner that humans must have certain balances of minerals in their bodies, and that certain illnesses of the body had chemical remedies that could cure them. (Debus & Multhauf, p.6-12)
He summarized his own views: "Many have said of Alchemy, that it is for the making of gold and silver. For me such is not the aim, but to consider only what virtue and power may lie in medicines." (Edwardes, p.47) (also in: Holmyard, Eric John. Alchemy. p. 170)
Indeed, the remnants of alchemical traditions can still be seen in modern medicine. For instance, the Caduceus has been adopted as the prime symbol of western medicine.
Paracelsus gained a reputation for being arrogant, and soon garnered the anger of other physicians in Europe. He held the chair of medicine at the University of Basel for less than a year; while there he angered his colleagues by publicly burning books by other physicians. He was forced from the city after having legal trouble over a physician's fee he sued to collect.
He then wandered Europe for some time, typically as a pauper. He revised old manuscripts and wrote new ones, but had trouble finding publishers. In 1536, his Die grosse Wundartzney (The Great Surgery Book) was published which enabled him to make a short comeback in popularity.
After his death, the movement of Paracelsianism was seized upon by many wishing to subvert the traditional Galenic physick and thus did his therapies become more widely known and used.
His motto was "alterius non sit qui suus esse potest" which means "let no man belong to another that can belong to himself".
Cinler daha önceki peygamberlerin tebliğlerine de uymuşlardı. Kur'an-ı Kerim'de Ahkaf suresinin ( 46 / 29 - 30 – 31 ) ayetlerinde,
30) < Dediler ki: “ Ey toplumumuz! Biz; Musa'dan sonra indirilen, kendinden öncekini doğrulayan, hakka ve dosdoğruyola ileten bir Kitap dinledik” >
31) “ Ey toplumumuz! Allah'ın davetçisine uyun, ona imanedin ki Allah, günahlarınızdan bir kısmını bağışlasın ve sizi acıklı bir azaptan korusun.”
Anlatıldığı gibi Hz. Musa'ya indirilene iman etmişlerdi. Nitekim sadece Hz. Musa değil daha pekçok peygamberin de tebliğini aldıkları yine En'am suresinde net olarak görülmektedir. (En'am /130) “ Ey cinler ve insanlar topluluğu! İçinizden, size ayetlerimi anlatan ve şu gününüzle yüzyüze geleceğiniz hususunda sizi uyaran resullaer gelmedi mi? ”
Bütün bu ayetlerden anlaşılacağı gibi, Cinler de peygamberlerin tebliğlerini dinlemişlerdir. Ve aralarından bazıları iman etmiş bazıları da inkar etmişlerdir.
Yine Kur'an-ı Kerim'de Cin suresi gayet net olarak açıklamaktadır;
1) De ki “ Cinlerden bir topluluğun dinleyip şunu söyledikleri bana vahyolundu: Gerçekten biz, hayranlık verici bir Kur'an dinledik.”
Yine Kur'an-ı Kerim'de (Neml, Sebe, Fussılet, Saffat.. ) cinler hakkında pek çok bilgi edinmekteyiz.
O halde sorumuza gelelim . İman eden cinler neye iman etmişlerdir?
- Cinler Allah'ın tek yaratıcı olduğuna, onun resulleri olduğuna ve bu resullerin insanlardan olduğuna iman etmişlerdir.Yani iman eden cinler, şeytanın yaptığı gibi yapmamış topraktan ve sudan olanın üstün olduğuna iman ettikleri gibi peygamberlerin de insanlardan olduğuna iman etmişlerdir.
O halde cinler öteki peygamberlerin de bütün tebliğlerine uyarlar mı?
- Dört ayaklı bir masanın bir ayağı kısa olsa nasıl denge olmaz ve o masanın üzerinde bir şey durmazsa, iman da böyledir. İnançlı bir bütünün tamamına inanır. Peygamberlerin tebliğlerine iman eden cinler de ilahi vahyin tamamına iman etmişlerdir.
Fakat insanlar arasında geçen özel meselelerle ilgili ayetler onları bağlamaz (Bakara 222).
Bu konuda bir başka görüş ise şudur. Ayetlerin okunuşlarının bir görünen manaları bir de sır olan manaları vardır ki, onlar bu örtünün altındaki manaya da iman ederler. Böylece bütün vahyi uygulamaları icab eder.
Cinlere, cinlerden peygamber gelmiş midir?
Bu konuda Kur'an-ı Kerim'de net bir cevap bulamıyoruz. (Sadece Enam 130) Oysa daha önceki inançlarda kabul edilen görüş şudur ki, Adem'den önce yeryüzünde cinler yaşamaktaydı. Daha doğrusu insandan önce onlar vardı. Ve cinler nefisli varlıklardı. Yani kavimdiler. Allah'u teala “ biz her kavime bir uyarıcı elçi gönderdik” der. İşte bu yüzden cinlere de cinlerden peygamber gönderildiğine inanılır.
O halde bu peygamberlerin isimleri nelerdir? Veya kitapları nerededir?
Bugün peygamber isimleri olarak söylenen cin isimleri esasen Akadca, Sümerce ve İbranice isimleridir. Ve bunun böyle olduğunu, daha doğrusu bu isimlerin eski inanışlardaki çok tanrıların isimleri olduğunu bunu savunanların bildiklerini sanmıyorum. Bugün büyüde kullanılan isimler de çoğunlukla bu isimlerdir. Yalnız işin bir enteresan tarafıda şudur ki, Eski ve Yeni Dünya'da cin peygamber isimlerinden bazıları ortak isimlerdir.
Süleyman EYÜP
Şubat, 1991
Süleyman EYYÜP'le röportaj:
CİNLERLE İNSANLAR EVLENEBİLİRLER Mİ?
Hande Karlukzade : Cinlerle insanlar evlenebilirler mi? Çocukları olur mu?
Süleyman Eyyüp : Bildiğimiz gibi insanın ham maddesi basitçe söylemek gerekirse su ve topraktır. Oysa cinlerin ise ateştir. Bu sorunun cevabı “insanoğlu sadece kendisi gibi bir insanoğlu ile evlenebilir.” diyeceğim.
Bir de olaya cinsel ilişki boyutundan baksak da farklı bir cevap bulamayız. Çünkü cinsel ilişkide de etten, kemikten, bedenli olana ihtiyaç vardır. Hatta insanlardan bazı sapıklar bazı hayvanlarla da ilişkiye girebilir. Bu çarpık ilişki de bile su ve beden ilişkisi söz konusudur. Oysa bir erkek insan ile bir cin nasıl ilişkiye girebilir ki? Bu hava ile ilişkiye girmek gibi birşeydir.
Ayrıca insanoğlunun üremesi için ALLAH muazzam bir beden yaratmıştır. Ve insan bedeninin bir ısısı mevcuttur. Biliyorsunuz ki bu ısı spermleri öldürür. İşte bu yüzden testisler vücudun dışındadırlar. Birkaç derecelik ısı azlığı bile spermlerin yaşamasını sağlar ancak bu sayede üreyebiliriz.
O halde bir erkek insanla bir dişi cinin ilişkiye girdiğini düşünsek dahi ateşten olanın içinde spermin yaşaması ve tutması düşünülemez.
Hande Karlukzade : Bir kadın insanla erkek cin ilişkiye girebilir mi? Çocukları olur mu?
Süleyman Eyyüp : BU da mümkün olmayan bir konudur. Asla bir kadın bir cinden hamile kalamaz. Yalnız burada bir farklılık söz konusudur. Kadın kendisi ile ilişkiye giriliyor gibi hissedebilir. Vücudunun belli bölgeleri (göğüs, boyun, rahim) darbeye maruz kalıyor hissedebilir. Hatta bu olayı kameralar bile tespit edebilir (Bu olayın tıptaki literatürüne bak.). Fakat bu derecede bile gelişen olayda çocuk olmaz.
Hande Karlukzade : Peki o zaman bu söylentiler nereden kaynaklanıyor?
Süleyman Eyyüp : Bütün bu söylentilerin kaynağı Yahudilerdir. Yahudi inanışına göre (Kitab-ı Mukaddes) Hz. Adem'in ilk karısı dişi cin LİLİTH'dır. Buna inanılır. Yine Kitab-ı Mukaddeste (Süleyman'ın eşi) Belkıs'ın annesinin cinlerden olduğu bahside vardır. Tabi sadece Yahudi inanacında değil diğer öteki inanaçlarda ve mitolojilerde de insanları cinlerle ilişkiye girdiği ve çocuk sahibi olduğu inanacı da vardır.
Hande Karlukzade : Bu olayı yaşadığını söyleyenler ne demek istiyorlar?
Süleyman Eyyüp : Esasında onlar hayallerini ve rüyalarını anlatıyorlar. Gizli İlimlerin içine girip çıkmayı bir türlü başaramayanlar cinlerden eşleri olduğunu söylerler. Bu hadise ekseriyetle şöyle gelişir (……….. ayetlerini ………… isimlerini belli aralıklarla tekrara ettikten sonra ……….oluşları yerine getirilir. Daha sonra temas sağlanır. Uzatmayalım bir güzel cin kadın görünür. Bu kadın ki o erkeğin asla hayal edemeyeceği bir güzelliktedir. Onunla cinsel ilişkiye girerse ki bu rüya halinde olur boşalır. Daha sonra her uyku anında da onunla ilişkiye girmeye çalışır. Ve belgesel gibi belli zamanlarda bu rüyaların devamını görür. Sanki günlük hayatının dışında rüya aleminde bir başka hayatı daha vardır. Çocukları bile olur. Onları görür konuşur.) İşte bu vakkaların yani kazayla Gizli İlimlerin içine girip çıkmayı bir türlü başaramayanları tedavi etmek lazımdır. Modern tıp ilaç ve psikolojik telkinle tedavi de büyük ilerlemeler kaydetmiş olsa da şu an için tam tedavisi mümkün değildir. Ben de böyle birkaç deli iyileştirdiğim kanaatindeyim. Daha doğrusu onlar artık kadın çocuk görmüyor ve kendi işlerine bakıyorlar.
Bir kadın ise rüyasında bir erkek cin görebilir. Onunla yakınlaşır. Ama tam beraber olacağı an uyanır. İşte dediğimiz gibi bunlar hep rüya aleminde olur.
Ben burada ŞIBLİ'nin, İBN ABBAS'ın, MUHİTTİN ARABİ'nin, İMAM MALİK'in görüşlerini size anlatmadım. Çünkü siz bana benim görüşümü sordunuz. Onların da cinlerle cinsel ilişkide çocuk meselesine bakışları aşağı yukarı aynıdır.
Hande Karlukzade : Sayın Süleyman Eyyüp peki ya büyücülükte üremeleri ve çoğalmaları…………?
Süleyman Eyyüp : Bu olayda şeytanlarla toplanılır. İnsanlar birbirleriyle çarpık ve sapık ilişkilere girerler. Belli günler, belli saatler ve lanetlenmiş ortamlarda bazı şekillerin içersinde …………… ama bu konuyu daha fazla anlatmak istemiyorum.
Yavrum! bu konuyu anlatırken bazı satanistler ve yeni yetme masonikler şunu iyi bilmelidirler ki, biz onların gittiği yoldan çoktan geri döndük. Onlar incubi ve üstatları iyi bilir sutcubilerle uğraşıyorlar. Ben ise bu konuyu anlatma ihtiyacı bile duymadım. Kimyanın elementlerini bile anlayamayacak kapasitede olan bit beyinlilere yardımcı olur diye biraz da bu konuyu anlatayım.
Cıvanın sırlarına vakıf olmaya başladıktan sonra (kuledeki Newton gibi) altını öğrenmeye başlayacaklar. Sonra en başa dönüp suyun sırrına vakıf olurlarsa ne demek istediğimi belki anlarlar.
Neyse fazla uzatmayalım kadınlarla cinsel ilişkiye giren cinlere kısaca incubi derler (Yeni dünyada tamnatom, Asya'da huzunn). Bunun Tevrat'ta yeri var mıdır dersek, Tekvin 6/4'de dayandırırlar. Bu konuyu Magdelena Crucia 1515 eylülünde ilk olarak yaşadı (Ve tam 29 yıl 8 ay 11 gün de devam etti). Erkeklerle beraber olanlarına da folletideunde sutcubi pomrad nızzmennet denir………………………………………………
Hande Karlukzade Not: Değerli okuyucularım, Süleyman Eyyüp bu özel sohbetinde Kur'an-ı KERİM inanışı dışındaki inanışları ayrıntılarıyla anlatmıştır. Bu konuyu cadılık bahsinde ayrıntıları ile vereceğimiz için bu bölümde yayınlamıyoruz. Yine Süleyman Eyyüp esasında bu konularla ilgili geçen pek çok ismin ve olayın esasen tuzaklar ve aldatmacalarla dolu olduğunu söylemiştir. Yine sorular esnasında yazılı olarak not tutulmasına izin vermediğinden kaset çözümünde bazı harflerin eksik yada fazla olabileceği belirtmek isterim. Ben tarzı gereği konuşmaları birebir yazıya döktüm. Böyle daha doğal olacağını düşündüm. Bu yüzden diksiyon hataları yapılmış olabilir.
Şubat 1991
Bilinmeyen bir yer
CİN'CE YADA CİNLERİN ÖZEL BİR DİLİ VAR MIDIR?
Öncelikle şunu belirtmeliyim ki, cinlerin bütün türlerinin kendi aralarında veya diğer türlerle anlaşmaları için sese ve özel bir lisana ihtiyaçları yoktur.
Şimdi sorunuza gelirsek, Ademoğullarının cinlerle temasını sağlama yollarından biri olan seslerde de bir takım özellikler vardır. Bu ses sistemi bizim alfabemizle yorumlandığında daha çok sessiz harflerle ifade edilebilecek sesler içerirler. Okunuş şekilleri ise daha önce Amazonlar'ın yaptığı gibi gırtlaktan çıkan sesler şeklindedir. Bu sesler topluluğundan oluşan kelimelere mana verilmeye kalkarsa en yakın diller Akadça veya Köktürkçe, Ural-Altay dil grubunda az da olsa manalandırılabilir.
Büyük olasılıkla bu manası olan kelimeler, Adem'den önce bu türlerin sınırlı sayıda maddeye verdikleri ya da çağrışım yaptıkları (rüzgar sesi, su sesi, ateşin rüzgarla parlaması, ağacın devrilirken sesi, fokurdamalar v.b.) seslerdir.
Bu bir dildir. Ve bu dili yeryüzünde sınırlı sayıda yazabilen ve yazıya aktarabilen, konuşan (kısa cümlelerle) gruplar vardır.
Bu gruplar: a) Cadılar
b) Büyücüler
c) Aradakiler
Süleyman Eyyüp
Yamyamlık, Arap toplumlarında da vardı. Misal olarak, Muaviye'nin annesi Hind harpte şehit olan müslümanların burun ve kulaklarını kestirerek boynuna uzun bir kolye yapmıştı. Yine Uhud Harbi'nde şehid edilen bir veya birkaç kişinin (Hz. Hamza) Vahşi isimli bir köle vasıtasıyla göğsünü açtırmış kalbinden bir parçayı ve ciğerini çiğ olarak yemişti.
İklimlerin ve koşulların değişik olması yamyamlık geleneğini engellememiştir. Yine bir başka kıtada eskimolarda bile yamyamlık vardı. Yazılı olmayan yasalarına göre aç kaldıklarında ve uzun süre gıda bulamadıklarında köpeklerinden evvel çocuklarını keserek yerlerdi. Bu günkü şartlara göre çok garip gelebilir ama eskimo inancına göre çocuklarını keserek yemek bazen de yaşlı anne ve babalarını yemek bir gelenekti. İşin en ilginç yanı ise bu toplumun yamyamlığı doğal karşılamasıydı. Mesela çocuklar kendi boyunlarına ip bağlayıp öldürülüp yenmeleri için anne ve babalarının önlerine kendi istekleriyle otururlardı. Annelerine ay şeklindeki bıçağı getirirlerdi. Yaşlılar ise geri kalanların kurtuluşu için en iyi çarenin bu olduğuna evlatlarını iknaya çalışırlardı.
Açlık dayanılmaz bir hal alınca kurban öldürülür fakat kafa, kalp ve ciğerine asla dokunulmazdı.
Avrupalı denizciler ve kürk avcıları soğuk denizlere açıldıklarında uzun yolculuklar yaparlardı. Bu seferler esnasında (İskorpit hastalığına da tutulurlar) bir de gemileri buza saplanınca (17. ve 18. yy.) mürettebatları tüm gıdayı buzlar çözülünceye kadar idare edememişlerse önce ölen denizcileri yerler daha sonra zayıfları öldürüp yemeye devam ederlerdi. Yamyamlığı pek çok kere tatbik etmişlerdi.
Haçlı seferleri sırasında da özellikle Franklar ve Almanlar, Müslüman eti yemeyi adet haline getirmişlerdi. O sırada sözde din savaşçılarını örgütleyen kilise yamyamlığı görmezden geliyordu.
Yine bir başka kıtada ise durum farklı değildi. Ekvator ve Bolivya And'larında bulunan Kaçibo Kızılderilileri de yamyamlık yaparlardı. Fakat bunların mantığı diğerlerinden farklıydı. Kaçibolar'a göre ölü etinin mezarda çürümesi, böcekler ve diğer hayvanlar tarafından yenilmesinden ise sevenleri ve dostları tarafından yenilmesi daha doğruydu. Bu kızılderililerde taze ölü yeme adeti vardı. Yine Bora Boralılar yılda bir kere Tahiti'ye saldırırlar ve büyük bir kıyım yaparlardı. İşin ilginç yanı Bora Boralılar Tahiti'li gençlerin etlerinin lezzetini beyazlardan öğrenmişlerdi. Denizci Kaptan Cook Havai'li yerliler tarafından yendiği gibi, illimunati çemberinin göbeğinde yer alan meşhur bir ailenin evladı ise Nakima'lar tarafından yenmişti.
Kimi topluluklarda ise yamyamlık özel törenler ve ritüeller için yapılıyordu. Cadılarda bebek yamyamlığı, Zumnularda cinsel organ yamyamlığı, Vandallarda (Vandal Krallığı değil) göz yamyamlığı mevcuttu.
SÜLEYMAN EYÜP
ÖNEMLİ NOT:
Yukarıda kısaca değişik topluluklarda yamyamlığı anlatmaya çalıştık. Fakat bu yazının devamında gizli ilimlerde büyü ve şeytana tapınmada yamyamlık anlatılacaktır. Toplam 13 bölümden oluşmaktadır. Yazarın isteği üzerine 52 günde bir yazılacaktır. Birinci bölüm 6 Haziran'da yayınlanacaktır.
YENİ DÜNYA BÜYÜCÜLERİNDE YAMYAMLIK
Onlar kafalarına uzun huni şeklinde külahlar takarlardı. Onlar sağ baş parmaklarını çolak ederlerdi. Onlar erkekliklerini ilk rüyadan sonra keserlerdi. Ve baş büyücüye MANÇE derlerdi. Tekerleğin ve atın olmadığı bu dünyada MANÇE'ler yani o büyünün büyük üstadları, şeytanın çocukları yamyamlık yapardı. Onlar en güçlüyü seçerlerdi. Yalnız en güçlüyü seçmekle kalmaz en şanslı olanı da ararlardı. Savaşta biz buna av da diyebiliriz, oklarla yaralanmayanlar en şanslılardı. Savaşları iki Turay (kahin avcı) ve bir Mançe takip ederdi.
Kurbanı tespit ettikten sonra onun yaralanmadan (kanı akmadan) yakalanmasına özen gösterilirdi. Daha sonra bu esir veya esirler Yürüyen Yılanın Tapınağında, Güneşin Mabedindeki törene hazırlanılırdı. Esire (kurban) ilk 9 gün hiç gün ışığı gösterilmezdi. Ve özel karışımlı (si..ad.). içirilirdi. 9. günün bitiminde güneşi görürlerdi. 25. güne kadar seçilen yiyecekler yedirilir ve kimyasal karışımlar içirilirdi. 25. günden sonraki 4 gün sadece sıvı karışımı verilir ve 29. gün eğer gökte güneş varsa tapınağın üstündeki sunakta gölgenin boyu eşit olduğu an ayaklarından (ayakları otlu sıvıya değecek şekilde) katlanarak sırt üstü sunağa yatırılır ve bir hamlede MANÇE kalbini çıkarırdı. O kadar ustaydı ki kalp elinde bile atmaya devam ederdi. Kan sunağa akıtılır kurbanın daha önce içmiş olduğu özel kimyasal sıvı ile karıştırılıp ense köküne yakın iki taraftan alınan et parçaları ile birlikte gırtlak ve dilden parçalar bu sıvının içine konulup, güneş batıncaya kadar bekletilir ve Mançe tarafından yenilirdi. Ve bu işlemi sadece baş rahip yapardı (halifeleri de –turaylar- yapabilirdi).
Bilgelerin öldürülmesi ve yamyamlığı daha farklı olurdu. Kafataslarının içine bilge kurbanın kalbinin sol tarafının parçasıyla ense kökünün parçalarını koyarlardı. Daha sonra beyni ile birlikte ezip lapa haline getirir ve Mançe bunu çorba gibi içerdi. Ve rüzgara, yağmura hükmederdi. Dokunduğunu öldürür, dokunduğunu iyileştirirdi. Büyük blok taşların yerlerini değiştirir, onları üst üste koydururdu. Sesle …………. ları da yapabilirdi. Bu bozguncu ve kan dökücüler kendi kanlarında boğdular. Dikkat edilmesi gereken bir husus da şudur, yamyamlıkla bayramlarda, müsabakalarda ve felaketleri savmak için yapılan insan kurbanları karıştırılmamalıdır. Yukarda bahsettiğim olay sadece Magic güç elde etmek, bu gücü daha da çoğaltmak, cinlerle daha iyi bedelleşmek için yapılan bir törendir. İspanyollar gelmeden çok önce yok oldular (yeni dünyada onlardan çok daha önceki büyücülerin ise başına göktaşı düştü.)
Yine kendilerine tanrıların gücünü cinlerin enerjisini kazanmak isteyen mason üstü bazı gruplarda da yamyamlık mevcuttur. Golden Dawn'da da yamyamlık görülmüştür. Fakat sadece Ipsissimus'ları yani iki kişi bunu denedi. Bu mason üstü tarikat ilk başlarda (Kont Cagliostro gibi) güce ve gizeme sahip olmak için ……. yemeğe ihtiyaç duydular.
SÜLEYMAN EYYÜP
Not: Bir sonraki yazı GoldEn Dawn'da Yamyamlık ve 11. derecenin sırrı.
Not: Yazar yine sohbet esnasında çok ayrıntılı törenden bahsetmiştir. Etik değerlere yakışmayan bu tören şeklini, beyin, ciğer, kalp ve bağırsak okumayı yazarın izniyle yayınlamadık. Bu yazının ikici bölümünde şu an yeryüzünde var olan bir takım gizli ve sapık tarikatların yamyamlık tarzlarını ve yöntemlerini yayınlayacağız, ALLAH yardımcımız olsun.
Ayeti Kerime Meali:
“Şunlar size HARAM kılınmıştır: Boğazlanmayarak ölmüş hayvanın eti, kan, domuz eti, ALLAH'tan başkası adına boğazlananlar, bir de boğulmuş yahut vurulmuş yahut yuvarlanmış yahut süsülmüş yahut canavar yırtmış olup da canı üzerindeyken kesemedikleriniz, dikili adak taşları üzerinde boğazlanan hayvanlar, fal oklarıyla kısmet paylaşmanız…Bütün bunlar birer fısk tır, yoldan çıkıştır. Küfre batmış olanlar bugün dininizden ümitlerini kestiler. Artık onlardan korkmayın, benden korkun. Bugün sizin için dininizi kemale erdirdim, üzerinizdeki nimetimi tamamladım ve sizin için din olarak İslam 'ı/ALLAH'a teslim olmayı seçtim. Şu da var ki, her kim ciddi bir açlıkla yeryüzüne gelir de günaha kaçmak maksadı olmaksızın onlardan yemek zorunda kalırsa, elbette ALLAH Gafur ve Rahim 'dir. (MAİDE - 3)”
Büyük şeytanla temasa geçip ondan güç almak esasında bu delilerin aradığı kadar zor bir şey de değildir.
Ama Okültik, hermetik, putperest ve ekzoterik inanç içinde kaybolan bu insanlar sonunda şeytanları ile buluştular. İşin hiç unutulmaması gereken bir vardıysa son kademeye gelmek için şeytanın kendinden üstün olan topraktan olan birini yok ettirmesi ve onun ruhunu ele geçirmeye kalkışması vardır.
Bu sapık mason üstü tarikat ilk başlarda (Kont cagliostro gibi) güce ve gizeme sahip olmak için mumya yemeye ihtiyaç duydu. Çünkü mumyaların içinde hem ölü hem de bilgelerin karışımları vardı. Bugün için inanması çok güç gelebilir ama Avrupa'da bir dönem özellikle Fransa'da mumyalar kilo ile satılır ve hatta hastalıkları iyi edeceği söylenirdi bugün Mısır'da mumya kalmamasının altındaki neden bu sapık inançtır. ( daha sonra gül haç derneğini faaliyetlerine (annasiperengili woddmanı westcotu materisi aleistercrowly peter cosimoyu dheophrastusbombastusvonhohenhim'i stefan aikel'i ) anlatacağım bir sonraki konu isis tapınağındaki yamyamlık ve 1888 1991 arası yamyamlık .
KANLI KONTES ERZSÉBET (ELIZABETH) BÁTHORY
1560-1614 yillari arasinda yasamis olan Macar kontesi. Bazilari o'nun seytandan daha kötü oldugunu söyleseler de, isledigi suçlar "kötü" kavraminin çok ötesindeydi. Bram Stroker, vampirler hakkindaki romaninin arastirmasini yaptigi siralarda Sabine Baring -Gould'un "The Book Of Werewolves " adli kitabina rastladi. Bu çalismada "Blood Countess" denilen merhametsiz bir kadinin yaptiklari anlatiliyordu. Görünüse bakilirsa bu hikaye Stroker'in Kont Drakula'yi yaratmasinda esin kaynagi olmustur. Gerçekte Elizabeth'in kuzeni Stephan Bathory bir gün Transilvanya'da bir prens olacakti.
Elizabeth iyi egitim görmüs, akilli bir kadin olmasina ragmen çok acimasiz ve zalim bir kisilige sahipti. Anlasilan kocasinin ölümünden sonra ortaya çikan ölüm korkusuyla, usaklarina ve kölelerine karsi sadist davranislar içersine girmisti. Sonsuzluk ya da uzun hayat olmazsa bile en azindan kan banyosu yaparak genç görünümlü bir ten elde etme çabasindaydi. Kocasi bir asker olarak, savasta esir düsmüs Türk askerlerine duygusuzca iskence ederdi ve Elizabeth aslinda, nasil zulmedilecegi hakkinda bilgileri kocasindan almisti.
Söylendigine göre Bathory, çok sayida kadin öldürmüs ve yaptigi insanlik disi eylemlerinde kendinden mevki olarak asagidaki kimseler tarafindan yardim görmüstür.
Bathory, kurbanlarini dövmeyi aliskanlik haline getirdigi gibi ayni zamanda onlari sakat birakirdi. Yine söylentilere bakilirsa Castle Csejthe adli evinin yakinlarinda kurbanlarindan bazilarini kisin karli ve soguk havasinda üzerlerine buzlu su dökerek dondururdu. Bunun disinda olasi yamyamlik davranislari da sergilemekteydi. Iddiaya göre Bathory bir defasinda, yasayan hizmetçi bir kizin vücudundan birçok isirik almistir. Blood Countess'in genç kalma umutlari için bakire genç kizlarin kaniyla banyo yaptigi gibi efsanevi hikayelerde vardir. Baska bir kaynaga göre de 650 kizi öldürüp kanlarini içtigi söylenir. Yine de kesin olan tek bir sey vardir ki, o da Elizabeth Bathory gerçekten var olmus ve seytanca isler yapmistir.
Ölü sayisi arttiginda Bathory'nin usaklari cesetleri satonun disina attilar. Kan içindeki ölü vücutlari bulan köylüler dogal olarak onlarin vampirler tarafindan öldürüldügünü düsündüler dedikodular böylelikle yayilmaya basladi.
Bathory 1610 yilinda, genç yastaki kizlari öldürme tesebbüslerinden sonra tutuklandi. Büyücülükle ilgisi oldugu iddiasi tutuklama nedeni olarak gösteriliyordu. Söylentilere göre, kurbanlarin cesetleri kanlar içinde satosunda bulunmustu. 1611 yilinda yapilan 2 durusmada Bathory'nin isledigi suçlar hakkinda tek ve gerçek ifadesi alindi. Kendisi bizzat mahkemede ortaya çikmadigi halde, usaklari orda bulunuyordu. Mahkemenin ardindan kontes'in sadik usaklari yetkililer tarafindan öldürüldü ve Elizabeth, Karpatya daglarinda bulunan satosundaki yatak odasina, ölümünden yillar sonrasina degin hapsedildi. O'nun hakkinda anlatilan efsaneler hala devam etmektedir. Bugün bile bazi insanlar Bathory'nin hayaletinin, anavatani olan Karpatya'da geceleri etrafta dolasarak kan aradigini söylerler.
Bir baska efsanede Kanli Kontesin yaptigi iskenceler ve cinayetler söyle anlatilir.
Kocasi öldükten sonra büyücülükle ugrasmaya baslamistir. Hatta at ve diger hayvanlarin kurban edildigi ayinlere katildigi düsünülmektedir. 40 yasina geldiginde yaslanmaya basladigini düsünüp güzelligini kaybedecegi telasina düser. Bir gün, genç bir hizmetçi kiz, sacini tararken yanlislikla biraz çeker ve o da kizin eline sert bir sekilde vurur, kizin elinden akan kan Elizabeth'in elinin üstüne düser ve oda kizin güzelligini ve tazeligini aldigini düsünür. Daha sonra bas usagina emir vererek kizin bütün kanini bir tekneye akittirir ve orada "kan banyosu" yapar. Daha sonra isi iyice abartir ve zaman içerisinde 612 genç kizi kaçirarak bunlarin ölümüne sebep olur. Kizlar, tepeye asili bir kafeste iskence görür ve Elizabeth de bu kafeslerden akan kanla dus alir. Çok ses çikartan bir hizmetçisinin de agzini diktigi söylenir, ayrica bakire cesetlerini ormana atarak kurt adam ve vampir söylentilerinin çikmasina neden olur. Kurbanlarini önce baglar sonra atardamarlarina delikler açarak kanin disari daha kolay bosalmasini saglar. Kurban için kan kaybindan ölmeyi beklemekten baska çare yoktur artik. Kurbanlarindan biri kaçmayi basarmis ve Castle Csejthe de dönen olaylar böylelikle gün yüzüne çikmistir. En sonunda bu yaptiklari anlasilir ve 1611 de kaziga baglanip diri diri yakilmaya mahkum edilir ancak sarayli oldugu için bu cezayi satosunda küçük bir odaya kapatmaya ve ölene kadar orada kalma cezasina dönüstürürler. Yalniz yemeginin verilebilmesi için küçük bir delik bulunan bir oda. 1614 yilinda burada ölü olarak bulunur.
HAKKINDA FILM:
Eternal adli 2004 yapimi filme ilham kaynagi olmustur.
HAKKINDA KITAP:
The Book Of Werewolves-Sabine Baring Gould
ERZSÉBET (ELIZABETH) BÁTHORY
Countess of Transylvania, vampire: Born 1560/61; died, August 21, 1614. In order to improve her complexion and also to maintain her failing grasp on her youth and vitality, she slaughtered six hundred innocent young women from her tiny mountain principality... The noble Báthory family stemmed from the Hun Gutkeled clan which held power in broad areas of east central Europe (in those places now known as Poland, Hungary, Slovakia, and Romania), and had emerged to assume a role of relative eminence by the first half of the 13th century. Abandoning their tribal roots, they assumed the name of one of their estates (Bátor meaning 'valiant') as a family name. Their power rose to reach a zenith by the mid 16th century, but declined and faded to die out completely by 1658. Great kings, princes, members of the judiciary, as well as holders of ecclesiastical and civil posts were among the ranks of the Báthorys. Adopting an exalted name did not alter some basic familial preferences among lesser lights however, and in order to consolidate more tenuous clingings to influence there was considerable intermarriage amongst the Báthory family, with some of the usual problems of this practice produced as a result. Unfortunately, beyond the 'usual problems' some extraordinary difficulties arose (namely hideous psychoses) and several "evil geniuses" appeared, the notorious and sadistic Erzsébet the most prominent of them. Truly, she was evil enough to be recognized as one of the original "vampires" who later inspired Bram Stoker to write the legend of Dracula -- but unlike Stoker's story, she was real. Unusual for one of her social status, she was a fit and active child. Raised as Magyar royalty, as a young maid she was quite beautiful; delicate in her features, slender of build, tall for the time, but her personality did not attain the same measure of fortuitous development. In her own opinion her most outstanding feature was her often commented upon gloriously creamy complexion. Although others were not really so equally impressed with the quality of her rather ordinary skin, they offered copious praise if they knew what was good for them, as Erzsébet did not accept unenthusiastic half-measures of adulation; and she was vindictive. She was only 15 when she was 'married off' for political gain and position to a rough soldier of (nevertheless) aristocratic stock and manner. By reason of the marriage, she became the lady of the Castle of Csejthe, his home, situated deep in the Carpathian mountains of what is now central Romania, but which then was known only as Transylvania. Located near no exciting urban center, the castle was surrounded by a village of simple peasants and rolling agricultural lands, interspersed with the jagged outcroppings of the frozen Carpathians. While the picturesque setting embraced a bucolic tapestry of ideal small fields, meandering stone walls, quaint cottages, a few satisfied brown cows, and goats with tinkling bells about their necks scampering amongst the chickens, life here was uneventful. The castle was typical for its day and place: cold, dun, gloomy, damp, dark; unlike the cozy thatched houses of the peasants below. While her husband was pursuing his passion, the soldier business, and off on various campaigns, for Elizabeth -- who did not wish to amuse herself in the out-of-doors where those loutish peons were grubbing in the mud -- life became poundingly boring in very short order. Being an energetic teenager, although one with a view and experience of life which was 'special,' she set about finding novel amusements to occupy her days. Her tastes were of a certain slant, and consequently she began to gather about herself (as her ample financial resources readily accommodated) persons of peculiar and sinister arts. These she welcomed into her presence, affording them commodious lodging and lavish attention to each of their most singular needs and interests. Among them were those who claimed to be witches, sorcerers, seers, wizards, alchemists, and others who practiced the most depraved deeds in league with the Devil and too painful to mention even in a story such as this. They taught her their crafts in intimate detail and she was enthralled. But learning such unspeakable things was not enough. War in the 16th century was a brutal affair. While fashionably fighting the Turks and attempting to gain information from prisoners captured, her husband employed a horrid device of torture: clever articulated claw-like pincers, fashioned of hardened silver; which, when fastened to a stout whip would tear and rip the flesh to such an obscene degree that even he, a cruel man, abandoned the apparatus in disgust and left it at the castle as he departed on yet another heroic foray. Elizabeth was not alone in her 'unusual' interests. Aware of Elizabeth's complex preoccupations, and amused by them, her aunt had introduced her also to the pleasures of flagellation (enacted upon desolate others of course), a taste Elizabeth quickly acquired. Equipped with her husband's heinous silver claws, she generously indulged herself, whiling away many lonely hours at the expense of forlorn Slav debtors from her own dungeons. The more shrill their screams and the more copious the blood, the more exquisite and orgasmic her amusement. She preferred to whip her 'subjects' on the front of their nude bodies rather than their backs, not only for the increased damage potential, but so that she could gleefully watch their faces contort in horror at their most grim and burning fate. Her husband died in 1604 (some say 1602) of stab wounds imposed on him by a harlot in Bucharest whom he had not paid, and Elizabeth immediately dreamed of a lover to replace him, since she never cared for him in the first place -- so much for her mourning. However, the mirror showed her that her prurient indulgences, as well as time, had taken their toll on her appearance. Her 'angelic' complexion had long since faded to something less than perfection; she had reached 43. Her desire for a lover did not fade; she raged deep within, cursing time. Such a simple interest as a new husband was not to rule the day, it was merely a detail. With the demise of her husband, prowling highly placed men began to smell a ripe opportunity to seize the power and influence encapsulated in the Báthory name; likely by acquiring her and then eliminating her. As well, she was next in line to become King of Poland, and she wanted the job. This seeming anomaly was possible within the governing constructs of the time, and the office of queen held no political weight. At the same time, she was educated beyond all those around her, reading and writing four languages while the prince of Transylvania was an illiterate boor (who bathed regularly -- every year on his birthday). Maintaining her youth and vitality became central to this developing plot; the absolute divine right to power she understood was hers to keep and protect would be essential to the attainment of all that she sought. Vanity, sexual desire, drive for political power all were seamlessly blended into a central primordial passion. If she lost her youth, she could forfeit all. Her mood deteriorated markedly and one day, as she viciously struck a servant girl for a minor oversight, she drew blood when her pointed nails raked the girl's cheek. The wound was serious enough that some of the blood got onto Elizabeth's skin. Later, Elizabeth was quite sure that that part of her own body - where the girl's blood had dropped - looked fresher somehow; younger, brighter and more pliant. Immediately she consulted her alchemists for their opinion on the phenomenon. They, of course, were enjoying her hospitality and did not wish to disappoint, so, fortunately, they did recall a case many many years before and in a distant place where the blood of a young virgin had caused a similar effect on an aged (but generous) personage of nobility and good grace. With such clear evidence at hand, Elizabeth was convinced that here was a brilliant discovery; a method to restore and preserve her youthful glow forever, or at least until she got what she wanted. The advice of her 'beauty consultant,' a woman named Katarina, concurred that her clever realization was most surely sound. Elizabeth reasoned that if a little was good, then a lot would be better: she firmly believed that if she bathed in the blood of young virgins -- and in the case of especially pretty ones, drank it -- she would be gloriously beautiful and strong once again. For years, Elizabeth's trusted helper in her various secret pleasures had been Dorotta Szentes. Now with her, and other 'witches' to help carry the load, Elizabeth roamed the countryside by night, hunting for suitable virginal girls as raw material for her difficult quest. When back in the castle, each batch of young girls would be hung, alive and naked, upside-down by chains wrapped around their ankles. Their throats would be slit and all of their blood drained for Elizabeth's bath, to be taken while the heat of their young bodies still remained in the thickening and sticky crimson pool. And every now and then, a really lovely young girl would be obtained. As a special treat, Elizabeth would drink the child's blood: at first from a golden flask, but later, as her taste for it increased, directly from the stream, as the writhing and whimpering body hung from the rafters, turning pale. Although she had held off her political foes, after five years of this enterprise Elizabeth at last began to realize that the blood of peasant girls was having little effect on the quality of her skin. Obviously such blood was defective and better blood was required. In early 17th century Transylvania, parents of substantial position wished their daughters to be educated in the appropriate social graces and etiquettes, so that they might gain the 'right' connections when ripe. Here was an opportunity. In 1609, Elizabeth established an academy in the castle, offering to take 25 girls at a time from proper families, and to correctly finish their educations. Indeed, their educations were finished. Assisted by Dorotta Szentes (known also by the graceful diminutive "Dorka") these poor students were consumed in exactly the same beastly fashion as the anguished peasant girls who preceded them. This was too easy, and Elizabeth became careless in her actions for the first time in her dreadful career. During a frenzy of lust, four drained bodies were thrown off the walls of the castle. The error was realized too late, for villagers had already seen, collected, and begun to identify the girls. The disappearance of all those young women began to be solved; the secret was finished. Word of this horror spread rapidly and soon reached the Hungarian Emperor, Matthias II, who immediately ordered that the Countess be placed on public trial. But, her aristocratic status did not allow that she be arrested. Parliament at once passed a new Act to reverse this privilege of station (lest she slip from their hands) and Elizabeth was brought before a formal hearing in 1610. Interestingly, no authority seemed inclined to offer any form of attention to these matters when merely peasant girls had been the subject of Elizabeth's blood-letting for five years previous. By the final count, 600 girls had vanished; Elizabeth admitted nothing. Dorka and her witches were burned alive, but the Countess, by reason of her noble birth, could not be executed. Katarina was somehow seen as another victim, and was set free. So, Elizabeth was damned to a death while alive. Sealed into a tiny closet of her castle -- and never let out -- she died four years later. Elizabeth did not ever utter even a single word of regret, or remorse. A note of interest: When Elizabeth was 25 years old, Stephan Báthory (a prince of Transylvania and her uncle) was elected King of Poland. The last regularly scheduled trans-Atlantic passenger ocean liner ship in operation was named the "Stephan Batory" (a typical spelling variation.) It ceased operation in 1991, and its ports of call were Gdansk, Poland, and Montréal.
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Geber (721-815)
Geber, aka Abu Musa Jabir ibn Hayyan, was a prominent Islamic alchemist, pharmacist, philosopher, astronomer, and physicist. He has also been referred to as "the father of Arab chemistry" by Europeans. His ethnic background is not clear; although most sources state he was an Arab, some describe him as Persian.
Jabir was born in Tus, Khorasan, in Iran, which was at the time ruled by the Umayyad Caliphate; the date of his birth is disputed, but most sources give 721 or 722. He was the son of Hayyan al-Azdi, a pharmacist of the Arabian Azd tribe who emigrated from Yemen to Kufa (in present-day Iraq) during the Umayyad Caliphate.
Hayyan had supported the revolting Abbasids against the Umayyads, and was sent by them to the province of Khorasan (in present Iran) to gather support for their cause. He was eventually caught by the Ummayads and executed. His family fled back to Yemen, where Jabir grew up and studied the Koran, mathematics and other subjects under a scholar named Harbi al-Himyari.
After the Abbasids took power, Jabir went back to Kufa, where he spent most of his career. Jabir's father's profession may have contributed greatly to his interest to chemistry.
In Kufa he became a student of the celebrated Islamic teacher and sixth Imam Ja'far al-Sadiq. It is said that he also studied with the Umayyad prince Khalid Ibn Yazid. He began his career practising medicine, under the patronage of the Barmakid Vizir of Caliph Haroun al-Rashid.
It is known that in 776 he was engaged in alchemy in Kufa.His connections to the Barmakid cost him dearly in the end. When that family fell from grace in 803, Jabir was placed under house arrest in Kufa, where he remained until his death.
The date of his death is given as c.815 by the Encyclopædia Britannica, but as 808 by other sources.
Contributions to chemistry
Jabir is mostly known for his contributions to chemistry. He emphasised systematic experimentation, and did much to free alchemy from superstition and turn it into a science. He is credited with the invention of many types of now-basic chemical laboratory equipment, and with the discovery and description of many now-commonplace chemical substances and processes - such as the hydrochloric and nitric acids, distillation, and crystalization that have become the foundation of today's chemistry and chemical engineering.
He also paved the way for most of the later Islamic alchemists, including al-Razi, al-Tughrai and al-Iraqi, who lived in the 9th, 12th and 13th centuries respectively. His books strongly influenced the medieval European alchemists and justified their search for the philosopher's stone.In spite of his leanings toward mysticism (he was considered a Sufi) and superstition, he more clearly recognised and proclaimed the importance of experimentation.
"The first essential in chemistry", he declared, "is that you should perform practical work and conduct experiments, for he who performs not practical work nor makes experiments will never attain the least degree of mastery."Jabir is also credited with the invention and development of several chemical instruments that are still used today, such as the alembic, which made distillation easy, safe, and efficient.
Distillation Process
By distilling various salts together with sulfuric acid, Jabir discovered hydrochloric acid (from salt) and nitric acid (from saltpeter). By combining the two, he invented aqua regia, one of the few substances that can dissolve gold. Besides its obvious applications to gold extraction and purification, this discovery would fuel the dreams and despair of alchemists for the next thousand years. He is also credited with the discovery of citric acid (the sour component of lemons and other unripe fruits), acetic acid (from vinegar), and tartaric acid (from wine-making residues).
Jabir applied his chemical knowledge to the improvement of many manufacturing processes, such as making steel and other metals, preventing rust, engraving gold, dyeing and waterproofing cloth, tanning leather, and the chemical analysis of pigments and other substances. He developed the use of manganese dioxide in glassmaking, to counteract the green tinge produced by iron - a process that is still used today. He noted that boiling wine released a flammable vapor, thus paving the way to Al-Razi's discovery of ethanol.
The seeds of the modern classification of elements into metals and non-metals could be seen in his chemical nomenclature. He proposed three categories: "spirits" which vaporise on heating, like camphor, arsenic, and ammonium chloride; "metals", like gold, silver, lead, copper, and iron; and "stones" that can be converted into powders.In the Middle Ages, Jabir's treatises on chemistry were translated into Latin and became standard texts for European alchemists.
These include the Kitab al-Kimya (titled Book of the Composition of Alchemy in Europe), translated by Robert of Chester (1144); and the Kitab al-Sab'een by Gerard of Cremona (before 1187). Marcelin Berthelot translated some of his books under the fanciful titles Book of the Kingdom, Book of the Balances, and Book of Eastern Mercury.
Several technical terms introduced by Jabir, such as alkali, have found their way into various European languages and have become part of scientific vocabulary.
Contributions to alchemy
Jabir became an alchemist at the court of Caliph Harun al-Rashid, for whom he wrote the Kitab al-Zuhra ("The Book of Venus", on "the noble art of alchemy").
Jabir's alchemical investigations revolved around the ultimate goal of takwin - the artificial creation of life. Alchemy had a long relationship with Shi'ite mysticism; according to the first Imam, Ali ibn Abi Talib, "alchemy is the sister of prophecy".
Jabir's interest in alchemy was probably inspired by his teacher Ja'far al-Sadiq, and he was himself called "the Sufi", indicating that he followed the ascetic form of mysticism within Islam.In his writings, Jabir pays tribute to Egyptian and Greek alchemists Hermes Trismegistus, Agathodaimon, Pythagoras, and Socrates.
He emphasises the long history of alchemy, "whose origin is Arius ... the first man who applied the first experiment on the [philosopher's] stone... and he declares that man possesses the ability to imitate the workings of Nature" (Nasr, Seyyed Hossein, Science and Civilization of Islam).
Jabir states in his Book of Stones (4:12) that "The purpose is to baffle and lead into error everyone except those whom God loves and provides for". His works seem to have been deliberately written in highly esoteric code, so that only those who had been initiated into his alchemical school could understand them. It is therefore difficult at best for the modern reader to discern which aspects of Jabir's work are to be read as symbols (and what those symbols mean), and what is to be taken literally. Because his works rarely made overt sense, the term gibberish is believed to have originally referred to his writings (Hauck, p. 19).
Jabir's alchemical investigations were theoretically grounded in an elaborate numerology related to Pythagorean and Neoplatonic systems. The nature and properties of elements was defined through numeric values assigned the Arabic consonants present in their name, ultimately culminating in the number 17.
To Aristotelian physics, Jabir added the four properties of hotness, coldness, dryness, and moistness (Burkhardt, p. 29). Each Aristotelian element was characterised by these qualities: Fire was both hot and dry, earth cold and dry, water cold and moist, and air hot and moist. This came from the elementary qualities which are theoretical in nature plus substance. In metals two of these qualities were interior and two were exterior. For example, lead was cold and dry and gold was hot and moist.
Thus, Jabir theorised, by rearranging the qualities of one metal, based on their sulfur/mercury content, a different metal would result. (Burckhardt, p. 29) This theory appears to have originated the search for al-iksir, the elusive elixir that would make this transformation possible - which in European alchemy became known as the philosopher's stone.
Jabir also made important contributions to medicine, astronomy, and other sciences. Only a few of his books have been edited and published, and fewer still are available in translation. The Geber crater, located on the Moon, is named after him.
Writings by Jabir
The writings of Jabir Ibn Hayyan can be divided into four categories:
- The 112 Books dedicated to the Barmakids, viziers of Caliph Harun al-Rashid. This group includes the Arabic version of the Emerald Tablet, an ancient work that is the foundation of the Hermetic or "spiritual" alchemy. In the Middle Ages it was translated into Latin (Tabula Smaragdina) and widely diffused among European alchemists.
- The Seventy Books, most of which were translated into Latin during the Middle Ages. This group includes the Kitab al-Zuhra ("Book of Venus") and the Kitab Al-Ahjar ("Book of Stones").
- The Ten Books on Rectification, containing descriptions of "alchemists" such as Pythagoras, Socrates, Plato and Aristotle.
- The Books on Balance; this group includes his most famous 'Theory of the balance in Nature'.Some scholars suspect that some of these works were not written by Jabir himself, but are instead commentaries and additions by his followers. In any case, they all can be considered works of the 'Jabir' school of alchemy.
Abu Bakr Mohammad Ibn Zakariya al-Razi
[864-930 AD]
Abu Bakr Mohammad Ibn Zakariya al-Razi, known as Al-Razi, as Ar-Razi, as Ibn Zakaria ( Zakariya ) or (in Latin) as Rhazes and Rasis , (8641-930 AD) was an Iranian polymath who contributed much to the fields of medicine and chemistry.
He was also significant in the field of philosophy.
He was born in Rayy (Rages) (actually, in Persian language Razi means from the city of Ray), an ancient city located near Tehran, Iran, and pursued a great amount of his research there. Note that Avicenna also lived in Ray for a period of time.
Razi was placed in-charge of the first Royal Hospital at Ray, from where he soon moved to a similar position in Baghdad where he remained the head of its famous Muqtadari Hospital and observed clinical cases. Today his name is commemorated in the Razi Institute near Tehran.
Razi was a Hakim, an alchemist and a philosopher. Before becoming a physician Razi was interested in music, he was well versed in the musical theory and is said to have been an exceptional performer.
He is considered one of the greatest alchemist of all time and his work remained in use for over 10 centuries. Inter alia he discovered alcohol, the use of alcohol in medicine, and he also discovered Sulfuric acid. Many also claim that he was the first to say that the world is round, but this was known much earlier, e.g. see Ptolemy.
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Razi wrote 184 books and articles, in several fields of science. His books and articles are named by Ibn Abi Asi'boed.
Ibn an-Nadim identifies five areas in which Razi distinguished himself:
1. Razi was recognized as the best physician of his time who had fully absorbed Greek medical learning.
2. He traveled in many lands. His repeated visits to Baghdad and his services to many princes and rulers are known from many sources.
3. He was a medical educator who attracted many students, both beginners and advanced.
4. He was compassionate, kind, upright, and devoted to the service of his patients whether rich or poor.
5. He was a prolific reader and writer and authored many books.
Avicenna İbni Sina Kimdir ?
Avicenna, aka Abu Ali al-Husain ibn Abdallah ibn Sina, was a Persian physician, philosopher, and scientist who was born in 980 in Kharmaithen near Bukhara, now in Uzbekistan (then Persia), and died June 1037 in Hamadan, Persia (Türk-Selçuklu).
He was the author of 450 books on a wide range of subjects. Many of these concentrated on philosophy and medicine. He is considered by many to be "the father of modern medicine."
George Sarton called Ibn Sina "the most famous scientist of Islam and one of the most famous of all races, places, and times." His most famous works are The Book of Healing and The Canon of Medicine, also known as the Qanun (full title: al-qanun fil-tibb ).
Early years
His life is known to us from authoritative sources. An autobiography covers his first thirty years, and the rest are documented by his disciple al-Juzajani, who was also his secretary and his friend.
He was born in 370 (AH) / 980 (AD) in Afshana, his mother's home, a small city now part of Uzbekistan (then part of Persia) and his Father from Balkh now part of Afghanistan (then also Persia). His native language was Persian.
His father, an official of the Samanid administration, had him very carefully educated at Bukhara. Although traditionally influenced by the Ismaili branch of Islam, his independent thought was served by an extraordinary intelligence and memory, which allowed him to overtake his teachers at the age of fourteen.
Ibn Sina was put under the charge of a tutor, and his precocity soon made him the marvel of his neighbours; he displayed exceptional intellectual behavior and was a Child prodigy who had memorized the Koran by the age of 10 and a great deal of Persian poetry as well.
From a greengrocer he learned arithmetic, and he began to learn more from a wandering scholar who gained a livelihood by curing the sick and teaching the young.
However he was greatly troubled by metaphysical problems and in particular the works of Aristotle. So, for the next year and a half, he also studied philosophy, in which he encountered greater obstacles. In such moments of baffled inquiry, he would leave his books, perform the requisite ablutions, then go to the mosque, and continue in prayer till light broke on his difficulties.
Deep into the night he would continue his studies, stimulating his senses by occasional cups of goat's milk, and even in his dreams problems would pursue him and work out their solution.
Forty times, it is said, he read through the Metaphysics of Aristotle, till the words were imprinted on his memory; but their meaning was hopelessly obscure, until one day they found illumination, from the little commentary by Farabi, which he bought at a bookstall for the small sum of three dirhems.
So great was his joy at the discovery, thus made by help of a work from which he had expected only mystery, that he hastened to return thanks to God, and bestowed alms upon the poor.
He turned to medicine at 16, and not only learned medical theory, but by gratuitous attendance on the sick had, according to his own account, discovered new methods of treatment.
The teenager achieved full status as a physician at age 18 and found that "Medicine is no hard and thorny science, like mathematics and metaphysics, so I soon made great progress; I became an excellent doctor and began to treat patients, using approved remedies."
The youthful physician's fame spread quickly, and he treated many patients without asking for payment.His first appointment was that of physician to the emir, who owed him his recovery from a dangerous illness (997).
Ibn Sina's chief reward for this service was access to the royal library of the Samanids, well-known patrons of scholarship and scholars. When the library was destroyed by fire not long after, the enemies of Ibn Sina accused him of burning it, in order for ever to conceal the sources of his knowledge.
Meanwhile, he assisted his father in his financial labours, but still found time to write some of his earliest works.
When Ibn Sina was 22 years old, he lost his father. The Samanid dynasty came to its end in December 1004.
Ibn Sina seems to have declined the offers of Mahmud of Ghazni, and proceeded westwards to Urgench in the modern Uzbekistan, where the vizier, regarded as a friend of scholars, gave him a small monthly stipend. The pay was small, however, so Ibn Sina wandered from place to place through the districts of Nishapur and Merv to the borders of Khorasan, seeking an opening for his talents.
Shams al-Ma'ali Qabtis, the generous ruler of Dailam, himself a poet and a scholar, with whom Ibn Sina had expected to find an asylum, was about that date (1052) starved to death by his troops who had revolted.
Ibn Sina himself was at this season stricken down by a severe illness. Finally, at Gorgan, near the Caspian Sea, Ibn Sina met with a friend, who bought a dwelling near his own house in which Ibn Sina lectured on logic and astronomy.
Several of Ibn Sina's treatises were written for this patron; and the commencement of his Canon of Medicine also dates from his stay in Hyrcania.
Ibn Sina subsequently settled at Rai, in the vicinity of modern Tehran, (present day capital of Iran), the home town of Rhazes; where Majd Addaula, a son of the last emir, was nominal ruler under the regency of his mother (Seyyedeh Khatun).
At Rai about thirty of Ibn Sina's shorter works are said to have been composed. Constant feuds which raged between the regent and her second son, Amir Shamsud-Dawala, however, compelled the scholar to quit the place.
After a brief sojourn at Qazvin he passed southwards to Hamadan, where the emir had established himself. At first, Ibn Sina entered into the service of a high-born lady; but the emir, hearing of his arrival, called him in as medical attendant, and sent him back with presents to his dwelling.
Ibn Sina was even raised to the office of vizier. The emir consented that he should be banished from the country. Ibn Sina, however, remained hidden for forty days in a sheikh's house, till a fresh attack of illness induced the emir to restore him to his post. Even during this perturbed time, Ibn Sina persevered with his studies and teaching.
Every evening, extracts from his great works, the Canon and the Sanatio, were dictated and explained to his pupils; among whom, when the lesson was over, he spent the rest of the night in festive enjoyment with a band of singers and players.
On the death of the amir, Ibn Sina ceased to be vizier and hid himself in the house of an apothecary, where, with intense assiduity, he continued the composition of his works.
Meanwhile, he had written to Abu Ya'far, the prefect of the dynamic city of Isfahan, offering his services.
The new emir of Hamadan, hearing of this correspondence and discovering where Ibn Sina's was hidden, incarcerated him in a fortress. War meanwhile continued between the rulers of Isfahan and Hamadan; in 1024 the former captured Hamadan and its towns, expelling the Turkish mercenaries.
When the storm had passed, Ibn Sina returned with the emir to Hamadan, and carried on his literary labors. Later, however, accompanied by his brother, a favourite pupil, and two slaves, Ibn Sina escaped out of the city in the dress of a Sufite ascetic.
After a perilous journey, they reached Isfahan, receiving an honorable welcome from the prince. Avicenna also introduced medical herbs.
Late life
The remaining ten or twelve years of Avicenna's life were spent in the service of Abu Ya'far 'Ala Addaula, whom he accompanied as physician and general literary and scientific adviser, even in his numerous campaigns.
During these years he began to study literary matters and philology, instigated, it is asserted, by criticisms on his style. But amid his restless study Ibn Sina never forgot his love of enjoyment. Unusual bodily vigour enabled him to combine severe devotion to work with facile indulgence in sensual pleasures.
Versatile, lighthearted, boastful and pleasure-loving, he contrasts with the nobler and more intellectual character of Averroes.
His bouts of pleasure gradually weakened his constitution; a severe colic, which seized him on the march of the army against Hamadan, was checked by remedies so violent that Ibn Sina could scarcely stand.
On a similar occasion the disease returned; with difficulty he reached Hamadan, where, finding the disease gaining ground, he refused to keep up the regimen imposed, and resigned himself to his fate.His friends advised him to slow down and take life moderately.
He refused, however, stating that: "I prefer a short life with width to a narrow one with length".
On his deathbed remorse seized him; he bestowed his goods on the poor, restored unjust gains, freed his slaves, and every third day till his death listened to the reading of the Qur'an. He died in June 1037, in his fifty-eighth year, and was buried in Hamedan, Persia.
Works
Ibn Sina is comparable to such greats as Abu Bakr Mohammad Ibn Zakariya al-Razi. However, despite such glorious tributes to his work, Ibn Sina is rarely remembered in the West today and his fundamental contributions to medicine and the European reawakening go largely unrecognised.Ibn Sina is usually considered as a great philosopher and physician.
His philosophical disciple is not a live school in western philosophy today. Unfortunately, the West only pays attention to some portion of his philosophy, which is known as the Latin Avicennaian School, and his other significant philosophical contribution, which had been hailed by Suhrawardi, is still unknown to West.
This notable part is called hikmat-al-mashriqqiyya by him. In some of his writings, he mentions this to his disciples as his major achievement. Heavily influenced by Ibn Sina, Suhrawardi made philosophical contributions which have developed much from Ibn Sina's work, later founding illuminationist philosophy and believing to have finished what Ibn Sina began.
Ibn Sina also wrote extensively on the subjects of philosophy, logic, ethics, metaphysics and other disciplines. Some of his works were written in Arabic - which was the de facto scientific language of that time, and some were written in the Persian language. Of linguistic significance even to this day are a few books that he wrote in nearly pure Persian language.
Unlike Aquinas who more or less sanctified Aristotle as church dogma, Ibn Sina corrected him often, encouraging a lively debate in the spirit of ijtihad. Accordingly he is one of the earliest pioneers of the scientific process of peer review as we know it today, his influence on that process being profound at least, and perhaps even decisive.
About 100 treatises were ascribed to Ibn Sina. Some of them are tracts of a few pages, others are works extending through several volumes.
The best-known amongst them, and that to which Ibn Sina owed his European reputation, is his 14-volume The Canon of Medicine, which was a standard medical text in Western Europe for seven centuries. It classifies and describes diseases, and outlines their assumed causes.
Hygiene, simple and complex medicines, and functions of parts of the body are also covered. It asserts that tuberculosis was contagious, which was later disputed by Europeans, but turned out to be true. It also describes the symptoms and complications of diabetes.
An Arabic edition of the Canons appeared at Rome in 1593, and a Hebrew version at Naples in 1491. Of the Latin version there were about thirty editions, founded on the original translation by Gerard of Cremona.
The 15th century has the honor of composing the great commentary on the text of the Canon, grouping around it all that theory had imagined, and all that practice had observed. Other medical works translated into Latin are the Medicamenta Cordialia, Canticum de Medicina, and the Tractatus de Syrupo Acetoso.
It was mainly accident which determined that from the 12th to the 17th century Ibn Sina should be the guide of medical study in European universities, and eclipse the names of Rhazes, Ali ibn al-Abbas and Averroes.
His work is not essentially different from that of his predecessor Rhazes, because he presented the doctrine of Galen, and through Galen the doctrine of Hippocrates, modified by the system of Aristotle. But the Canon of Avicenna is distinguished from the Al-Hawi (Continens) or Summary of Rhazes by its greater method, due perhaps to the logical studies of the former.
The work has been variously appreciated in subsequent ages, some regarding it as a treasury of wisdom, and others, like Averroes, holding it useful only as waste paper. In modern times it has been more criticized than read.
The vice of the book is excessive classification of bodily faculties, and over-subtlety in the discrimination of diseases.
It includes five books; of which the first and second treat of physiology, pathology and hygiene, the third and fourth deal with the methods of treating disease, and the fifth describes the composition and preparation of remedies.
This last part contains some personal observations. He is, like all his countrymen, ample in the enumeration of symptoms, and is said to be inferior to Ali in practical medicine and surgery. He introduced into medical theory the four causes of the Peripatetic system.
Of natural history and botany he pretended to no special knowledge.
Up to the year 1650, or thereabouts, the Canon was still used as a textbook in the universities of Leuven and Montpellier.
Scarcely any member of the Arabian circle of the sciences, including theology, philology, mathematics, astronomy, physics, and music, was left untouched by the treatises of Ibn Sina, many of which probably varied little, except in being commissioned by a different patron and having a different form or extent.
He wrote at least one treatise on alchemy, but several others have been falsely attributed to him. His book on animals was translated by Michael Scot. His Logic, Metaphysics, Physics, and De Caelo, are treatises giving a synoptic view of Aristotelian doctrine.
The Logic and Metaphysics have been printed more than once, the latter, e.g., at Venice in 1493, 1495, and 1546. Some of his shorter essays on medicine, logic, &c., take a poetical form (the poem on logic was published by Schmoelders in 1836).
Two encyclopaedic treatises, dealing with philosophy, are often mentioned. The larger, Al-Shifa' (Sanatio), exists nearly complete in manuscript in the Bodleian Library and elsewhere; part of it on the De Anima appeared at Pavia (1490) as the Liber Sextus Naturalium, and the long account of Ibn Sina's philosophy given by Shahrastani seems to be mainly an analysis, and in many places a reproduction, of the Al-Shifa'.
A shorter form of the work is known as the An-najat (Liberatio). The Latin editions of part of these works have been modified by the corrections which the monastic editors confess that they applied. There is also a Philosophia Orientalis, mentioned by Roger Bacon, and now lost, which according to Averroes was pantheistic in tone.
In the museum at Bukhara, there are displays showing many of his writings, surgical instruments from the period and paintings of patients undergoing treatment.
In Iran, he is considered a national icon, and is often regarded as one of the greatest Persians to have ever lived. Many of his portraits and statues remain in Iran today.
An impressive monument to the life and works of the man who is known as the 'doctor of doctors' still stands outside the Bukhara museum and his portrait hangs in the Hall of the Faculty of Medicine in the University of Paris.
Ibn Sina was interested in the effect of the mind on the body, and wrote a great deal on psychology, likely influencing Ibn Tufayl and Ibn Bajjah.
Along with Rhazes, Ibn Nafis, Al-Zahra and Al-Ibadi, he is considered an important compiler of Early Muslim medicine.
There is a crater on the moon called Avicenna which was named after him.
Albertus Magnus - 1193-1280 - was also known as Saint Albert the Great and Albert of Cologne, was a Dominican friar who became famous for his comprehensive knowledge and advocacy for the peaceful coexistence of science and religion. He is considered to be the greatest German philosopher and theologian of the Middle Ages. He was the first medieval scholar to apply Aristotle's philosophy to Christian thought at the time. Catholicism honors him as a Doctor of the Church, one of only 33 men and women with that honor.
In the Dominican Order he rose to the position of Bishop of Ratisbourg. Later he was canonized as Saint Albert the Great. He was both student and teacher of alchemy and chemistry, and an alleged magician. He firmly believed in the benefits of botany claiming various plants, rocks, and amethysts improved clairvoyance.
Like Aristotle, he thought nature and men's lives were controlled by the stars and plants. Notably he taught Saint Thomas Acquinas and made several significant contributions to chemistry. Legend has it he turned based metal into gold, but there is no evidence of this in his notes on alchemy. Legend also has it that when a dinner guest of William II, the Count of Holland, on New Year's Day, 1242, Magnus suggested the guests dine outdoors. Wanting a piece of land for a monastery he graciously changed the freezing day into a warm spring afternoon with blooming flowers and singing birds.
LIFE
He was born of the noble family of Bollstadt in Lauingen, Bavaria, Germany on the Danube, sometime between 1193 and 1206. The term "magnus" is not descriptive; it is the Latin equivalent of his family name, de Groot.
Albertus was educated principally at Padua, where he received instruction in Aristotle's writings.
After an alleged encounter with the Blessed Virgin Mary, he entered holy orders.
In 1223 he became a member of the Dominican Order, and studied theology under its rules at Bologna and elsewhere.
Selected to fill the position of lecturer at Cologne, where the order had a house, he taught for several years there, at Regensburg, Freiburg, Strasbourg and Hildesheim.
In 1245 he went to Paris, received his doctorate and taught for some time, in accordance with the regulations, with great success.
In 1254 he was made provincial of the Dominican Order, and fulfilled the arduous duties of the office with great care and efficiency. During the time he held this office he publicly defended the Dominicans against the attacks by the secular and regular faculty of the University of Paris, commented on St John, and answered the errors of the Arabian philosopher, Averroes.
In 1260 Pope Alexander IV made him bishop of Regensburg, which office he resigned after three years. The remainder of his life he spent partly in preaching throughout Bavaria and the adjoining districts, partly in retirement in the various houses of his order.
In 1270 he preached the eighth Crusade in Austria. Among the last of his labors was the defence of the orthodoxy of his former pupil, Thomas Aquinas, whose death in 1274 grieved Albertus.
After suffering collapse of health in 1278, he died on November 15, 1280, in Cologne, Germany. His tomb is in the crypt of the Dominican church of St. Andreas in Cologne.
Albertus is frequently mentioned by Dante, who made his doctrine of free will the basis of his ethical system. In his Divine Comedy, Dante places Albertus with his pupil Thomas Aquinas among the great lovers of wisdom (Spiriti Sapienti) in the Heaven of the Sun.Albertus was beatified in 1622.
He was canonized and also officially named a Doctor of the Church in 1931 by Pope Pius XI. His feast day is celebrated on November 15th.
MUSIC
Albertus is known for his enlightening commentary on musical practice of the time. Most of his musical observations are given in his commentary on Aristotle's Poetics.
Among other things, he rejects the idea of "music of the spheres" as ridiculous: movement of astronomical bodies, he supposes, is incapable of generating sound.
He also wrote extensively on proportions in music, and on the three different subjective levels on which plainchant could work on the human soul: purging of the impure; illumination leading to contemplation; and nourishing perfection through contemplation.
Of particular interest to 20th century music theorists is the attention he paid to silence as an integral part of music.
WRITINGS
Albertus' writings collected in 1899 went to 38 volumes, displaying his prolific habits and literally encyclopedic knowledge of topics including, but not limited to, logic, theology, botany, geography, astronomy, mineralogy, chemistry, zoölogy, physiology, and phrenology, all of it the result of logic and observation. He was the most widely read author of his time.
The whole of Aristotle's works, presented in the Latin translations and notes of the Arabian commentators, were by him digested, interpreted and systematized in accordance with church doctrine. He came to be so associated with Aristotle that he was referred to as "Aristotle's ape".
Albert's activity, however, was more philosophical than theological. The philosophical works, occupying the first six and the last of the twenty-one volumes, are generally divided according to the Aristotelian scheme of the sciences, and consist of interpretations and condensations of Aristotle's relative works, with supplementary discussions depending on the questions then agitated, and occasionally divergences from the opinions of the master.
His principal theological works are a commentary in three volumes on the Books of the Sentences of Peter Lombard (Magister Sententiarum), and the Summa Theologiae in two volumes. This last is in substance a repetition of the first in a more didactic form.
INFLUENCE
The influence exerted by Albert on the scholars of his own day and on those of subsequent ages was naturally great.
His fame is due in part to the fact that he was the forerunner, the guide and master of St. Thomas Aquinas, but he was great in his own name, his claim to distinction being recognized by his contemporaries and by posterity.
It is remarkable that this friar of the Middle Ages, in the midst of his many duties as a religious, as provincial of his order, as bishop and papal legate, as preacher of a crusade, and while making many laborious journeys from Cologne to Paris and Rome, and frequent excursions into different parts of Germany, should have been able to compose a veritable encyclopedia, containing scientific treatises on almost every subject, and displaying an insight into nature and a knowledge of theology which surprised his contemporaries and still excites the admiration of learned men in our own times.
He was, in truth, a Doctor Universalis. Of him it in justly be said: Nil tetigit quod non ornavit; and there is no exaggeration in the praises of the modern critic who wrote: "Whether we consider him as a theologian or as a philosopher, Albert was undoubtedly one of the most extraordinary men of his age; I might say, one of the most wonderful men of genius who appeared in past times" (Jourdain, Recherches Critiques).
Philosophy, in the days of Albert, was a general science embracing everything that could be known by the natural powers of the mind; physics, mathematics, and metaphysics. In his writings we do not, it is true, find the distinction between the sciences and philosophy which recent usage makes. It will, however, be convenient to consider his skill in the experimental sciences, his influence on scholastic philosophy, his theology.
SCIENCES
Albertus' knowledge of physical science was considerable and for the age accurate. His industry in every department was great, and though we find in his system many of those gaps which are characteristic of scholastic philosophy, yet the protracted study of Aristotle gave him a great power of systematic thought and exposition, and the results of that study, as left to us, by no means warrant the contemptuous title sometimes given him of the "Ape of Aristotle."
They rather lead us to appreciate the motives which caused his contemporaries to bestow on him the honorable surnames "The Great" and Doctor Universalis.
It must, however, be admitted that much of his knowledge was ill digested; it even appears that he regarded Plato and Speusippus as Stoics.
Albertus was both a student and a teacher of alchemy and chemistry.
He isolated arsenic in 1250, the first element to be isolated since antiquity and the first with a known discoverer.
He was alleged to be a magician, since he was repeatedly charged by some of his unfriendly contemporaries with communing with the devil, practicing the craft of magic, and with the making of a demonic automata able to speak.
He was also one of the alchemists reputed to have succeeded in discovering the Philosopher's Stone.
PHILOSOPHY
More important than Albert's development of the physical sciences was his influence on the study of philosophy and theology. He, more than any one of the great scholastics preceding St. Thomas, gave to Christian philosophy and theology the form and method which, substantially, they retain to this day.
In this respect he was the forerunner and master of St. Thomas, who excelled him, however, in many qualities required in a perfect Christian Doctor. In marking out the course which other followed, Albert shared the glory of being a pioneer with Alexander of Hales (d. 1245), whose "Summa Theologiae" was the first written after all the works of Aristotle had become generally known at Paris.
Their application of Aristotelean methods and principles to the study of revealed doctrine gave to the world the scholastic system which embodies the reconciliation of reason and Orthodox faith.
After the unorthodox Averroes, Albert was the chief commentator on the works of, Aristotle, whose writings he studied most assiduously, and whose principles he adopted, in order to systematize theology, by which was meant a scientific exposition and defence of Christian doctrine.
The choice of Aristotle as a master excited strong opposition. Jewish and Arabic commentaries on the works of the Stagirite had given rise to so many errors in the eleventh, twelfth and thirteenth centuries that for several years (1210-25) the study of Aristotle's Physics and Metaphysics was forbidden at Paris.
Albert, however, knew that Averroes, Abelard, Amalric, and others had drawn false doctrines from the writings of the Philosopher; he knew, moreover, that it would have been impossible to stem the tide of enthusiasm in favour of philosophical studies; and so he resolved to purify the works of Aristotle from Rationalism, Averroism, Pantheism, and other errors, and thus compel pagan philosophy to do service in the cause of revealed truth. In this he followed the canon laid down by St. Augustine (II De Doct. Christ., xl), who declared that truths found in the writings of pagan philosophers were to be adopted by the defenders of the true faith, while their erroneous opinions were to be abandoned, or explained in a Christian sense. All inferior (natural) sciences should be the servants (ancillae) of Theology, which is the superior and the mistress
Against the rationalism of Abelard and his followers Albert pointed out the distinction between truths naturally knowable and mysteries (e.g. the Trinity and the Incarnation) which cannot known without revelation
We have seen that he wrote two treatises against Averroism, which destroyed individual immortality and individual responsibility, by teaching that there is but one rational soul for all men.
Pantheism was refuted along with Averroism when the true doctrine on Universals, the system known as moderate Realism, was accepted by the scholastic philosophers.
This doctrine Albert based upon the Distinction of the universal ante rem (an idea or archetype in the mind of God), in re (existing or capable of existing in many individuals), and post rem (as a concept abstracted by the mind, and compared with the individuals of which it can be predicated).
"Universale duobus constituitur, natura, scilicet cui accidit universalitas, et respectu ad multa. qui complet illam in natura universalis" (Met., lib. V, tr. vi, cc. v, vi). A.T. Drane (Mother Raphael, O.S.D.) gives a remarkable explanation of these doctrines (op. cit. 344-429). Though follower of Aristotle, Albert did not neglect Plato.
"Scias quod non perficitur homo in philosophia, nisi scientia duarum philosophiarum, Aristotelis et Platonis (Met., lib. I, tr. v, c. xv). It is erroneous to say that he was merely the "Ape" (simius) of Aristotle. In the knowledge of Divine things faith precedes the understanding of Divine truth, authority precedes reason (I Sent., dist. II, a. 10); but in matters that can be naturally known a philosopher should not hold an opinion which he is not prepared to defend by reason ibid., XII; Periherm., 1, I, tr. l, c. i).
Logic, according to Albert, was a preparation for philosophy teaching how we should use reason in order to pass from the known to the unknown: "Docens qualiter et per quae devenitur per notum ad ignoti notitiam" (De praedicabilibus, tr. I, c. iv).
Philosophy is either contemplative or practical. Contemplative philosophy embraces physics, mathematics, and metaphysics; practical (moral) plilosophy is monastic (for the individual), domestic (for the family), or political (for the state, or society).
Excluding physics, now a special study, authors in our times still retain the old scholastic division of philosophy into logic, metaphysics (general and special), and ethics.
ALBERT'S THEOLOGY
In theology Albert occupies a place between Peter Lombard, the Master of the Sentences, and St. Thomas Aquinas.
In systematic order, in accuracy and clearness he surpasses the former, but is inferior to his own illustrious disciple.
His "Summa Theologiae" marks an advance beyond the custom of his time in the scientific order observed, in the elimination of useless questions, in the limitation of arguments and objections; there still remain, however, many of the impedimenta, hindrances, or stumbling blocks, which St. Thomas considered serious enough to call for a new manual of theology for the use of beginners - ad eruditionem incipientium, as the Angelic Doctor modestly remarks in the prologue of his immortal "Summa".
The mind of the Doctor Universalis was so filled with the knowledge of many things that he could not always adapt his expositions of the truth to the capacity of novices in the science of theology.
He trained and directed a pupil who gave the world a concise, clear, and perfect scientific exposition and defence of Christian Doctrine; under God, therefore, we owe to Albertus Magnus the "Summa Theologica" of St. Thomas.
He died at Cologne, November 15, 1280.
- New Advent Encyclopedia
Roger Bacon
Roger Bacon (c. 1214 1294), also known as Doctor Mirabilis (Latin: "astounding teacher"), was one of the most famous Franciscan friars of his time. He was an English philosopher who placed considerable emphasis on empiricism, and has been presented as one of the earliest advocat
es of the modern scientific method in the West; though later studies have emphasized his reliance on occult and alchemical traditions. He was intimately acquainted with the philosophical and scientific insights of the Arab world, one of the most advanced civilizations at the time.
Early life
Bacon is thought to have been born near Ilchester in Somerset, though he has also been claimed by Bisley in Gloucestershire. His date of birth is equally uncertain. The only source is his statement in the Opus Tertium, written in 1267, that forty years have passed since I first learned the alphabet. The 1214 birth date assumes he was not being literal, and meant 40 years had passed since he matriculated at Oxford at the age of 13. If he had been literal, his birth date was more likely around 1220.
Bacon's family appears to have been well-off, but, during the stormy reign of Henry III of England, their property was despoiled and several members of the family were driven into exile.
Roger Bacon studied and later became a Master at Oxford, lecturing on Aristotle. There is no evidence he was ever awarded a doctorate - the title Doctor Mirabilis was posthumous and figurative. He crossed over to France in 1241 to teach at the university of Paris, then the center of intellectual life in Europe, where the teaching of Aristotle, till that time forbidden because Aristotle was only available via Islamic commentators, had recently been resumed. As an Oxford Master, Bacon was a natural choice for the post. He returned to Oxford in 1247 and studied intensively for many years, forgoing much of social and academic life, ordering expensive books (which had to be hand-copied at the time) and instruments. He later became a Franciscan friar. He probably took orders in 1253, after 10 years of study which had left him physically and mentally exhausted.
The two great orders, Franciscans and Dominicans, were not long-established, and had begun to take the lead in theological discussion. Alexander of Hales led the Franciscans, while the rival order rejoiced in Albertus Magnus and Thomas Aquinas. Bacon's abilities were soon recognised, and he enjoyed the friendship of such eminent men as Adam de Marisco and Robert Grosseteste, bishop of Lincoln. In the course of his teaching and research, he performed and described various experiments.
Life and Works
The scientific training Bacon had received showed him the defects in existing academic debate. Aristotle was known only through poor translations, as none of the professors would learn Greek. The same was true of Scripture. Physical science was not carried out by experiment in the Aristotelian way, but by arguments based on tradition.
Bacon withdrew from the scholastic routine and devoted himself to languages and experimental research. The only teacher whom he respected was a certain Petrus de Maharncuria Picardus, or "of Picardie", probably identical with a certain mathematician, Petrus Peregrinus of Picardie, who is perhaps the author of a manuscript treatise, De Magnete, contained in the Bibliotheque Imperiale at Paris. The contrast between the obscurity of such a man and the fame enjoyed by the fluent young doctors roused Bacon's indignation.
In the Opus Minus and Opus Tertium he pours forth a violent tirade against Alexander of Hales, and another professor, who, he says, acquired his learning by teaching others, and adopted a dogmatic tone, which caused him to be received at Paris with applause as the equal of Aristotle, Avicenna, or Averroes. Bacon was always an outspoken man who stated what he believed to be true and attacked those with whom he disagreed, which repeatedly caused him great trouble.
In 1256 a new head of the scientific branch of the Franciscan order in England was appointed: Richard of Cornwall, with whom Bacon had strongly disagreed in the past. Before long, Bacon was transferred to a monastery in France, where for about 10 years he could communicate with his intellectual peers only in writing.
Bacon wrote to the Cardinal Guy le Gros de Foulques, who became interested in his ideas and asked him to produce a comprehensive treatise. Bacon, being constrained by a rule of the Franciscan order against publishing works out of the order without special permission, initially hesitated.
The cardinal became Pope Clement IV and urged Bacon to ignore the prohibition and write the book in secret. Bacon complied and sent his work, the Opus Majus, a treatise on the sciences (grammar, logic, mathematics, physics, and philosophy), to the pope in 1267. It was followed in the same year by the Opus Minus (also known as Opus Secundum), a summary of the main thoughts from the first work.
In 1268, he sent a third work, the Opus Tertium to the pope, who died the same year, apparently before even seeing the Opus Majus although it is known that the work reached Rome.
Some claim that Bacon fell out of favor, and was later imprisoned by the Franciscan order in 1278 in Ancona as his dissemination of Arab alchemy, and his protests against the ignorance and immorality of the clergy, roused accusations of witchcraft.
He supposedly stayed imprisoned for over ten years, until intercession of English noblemen secured his release. About this episode, the historian of science David C. Lindberg, quoted by James Hannam, says that "his imprisonment, if it occurred at all probably resulted with his sympathies for the radical 'poverty' wing of the Franciscans (a wholly theological matter) rather than from any scientific novelties which he may have proposed."
Bacon died without important followers, was quickly forgotten, and remained so for a long time.
In his writings, Bacon calls for a reform of theological study. Less emphasis shou
